Introduction
The word Stoic comes from the Greek stoikos, which means “of the stoa.” A stoa was a covered walkway, or portico, lined with columns. The reason Stoicism goes by this name is because its founder, Zeno of Citium, taught his classes at the Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch) that overlooked the Agora (central market) in Athens, Greece. It seems that most philosophers of that day had their schools in private quarters. Zeno, however, chose this public space to be the gathering place for his school.
In the article about Epicureanism, it was noted that once, when the apostle Paul was in Athens, Greece (see Acts 17), he interacted with people from many different religious backgrounds. In addition to the Epicureans, he also talked with some who are identified as Stoics. Stoicism was another philosophical school that had a following among certain intellectuals. In order for Paul to effectively interact with these Stoics, he had to know something about their religion in order to explain to them how what they believed was not the truth. Without that as a starting point, he would not have been able to share the gospel in a way that they would be able to understand.
Zeno introduced his Stoic philosophy around 300 B.C. He was well known for engaging in vigorous debates, particularly with the Skeptics, the Epicureans, and others who were considered academics. Stoicism was considered a very practical philosophy that put an emphasis on everyday life, and had a strong focus on ethics. The ethics of Stoicism was based on its understanding of natural science, metaphysics, and logic. It focused on aiding people’s attempts to develop self-control and fortitude in order to overcome destructive emotions. Stoicism did not actually try to eliminate people’s emotions, but it did seek to tame them by encouraging people to voluntarily abstain from worldly pleasures. Zeno believed that this approach to life would help people have clear judgment, inner calm, and freedom from suffering.
History
As mentioned above, Stoicism first emerged in Athens, Greece, around 300 B.C., when Zeno of Citium began teaching his philosophy there. Zeno was a student of the Cynic philosopher Crates of Thebes, so his philosophy had its origin in Cynic philosophy. Zeno, however, felt that Cynicism was too harsh, so he moderated his beliefs in order to make it more practical for ordinary people. Early Stoicism was essentially a back-to-nature movement that dismissed the notion of superstitions and taboos. It promoted a belief that the law of morality is the same as the operation of Nature.
There are three commonly accepted eras of ancient Stoicism (generally referred to as Stoa). The early Stoa began with its founding by Zeno of Citium and extended to the time of Chrysippus, the school’s third leader. The middle Stoa lasted from the late second to the first century B.C. The late Stoa consisted of the Roman Imperial period that extended through the first and second centuries A.D.
Zeno of Citium was born around 334 B.C. in the Greek colony of Citium. This corresponds to modern-day Larnaca on the island of Cyprus. His father was probably a merchant of Phoenician heritage. Zeno himself also worked as merchant until the age of 42. In practicing his trade, he became quite wealthy. It was while he was still working as a merchant that he began his studies in philosophy. He continued his philosophical education until he began his own school of philosophy in Athens.
Most of what we know about Zeno is found in a biography of his life by Diogenes Laertius. His account indicates that Zeno’s interest in philosophy began when he consulted an oracle in order to find out what he should do with his life. The god’s response through the oracle was that he should take on the look of the dead. In order to try and understand what that meant, he began to study the writings of ancient authors.
Once, while traveling from Phoenicia to Peiraeus, he was shipwrecked. After surviving that event, he went to Athens and happened to wander into a bookstore. In that bookstore, he came across Xenophon’s Memorabilia and became quite intrigued with the book’s portrayal of Socrates. With that, he asked the bookseller where men like Socrates might be located. At that moment, the most famous Cynic philosopher alive at that time, Crates of Thebes (365-285 B.C.), just happened to be walking by and the bookseller pointed to him. As it turned out, Crates also happened to be in Socrates’ philosophical lineage. With that, Zeno followed him and became his student. In addition to Crates, Zeno also took the opportunity to study Platonism, and with the philosophers of the Megarian school.
He began his own school in Athens around 300 B.C. and held class at the Stoa Poikile. His disciples were initially called Zenonians, but eventually took on the name Stoics.
Tradition has it that Zeno was haggard and sunburned, and led an ascetic life. He was said to enjoy siting in the sun, eating figs, and drinking wine. He was also known for his gruff speech, his outrageous behavior, and for mocking wealthy Athenians while hanging out with uneducated people and beggars.
It is said that Zeno did not have many female friends, and actually preferred the company of men and boys. In fact, for a time he lived with a man named Persaeus, his favorite student. Persaeus was Zeno’s servant or secretary, and, while it is not known for certain, he may have been Zeno’s lover, as well.
Zeno died around 262 or 261 B.C. The story is told that one day in his old age, as he was leaving school, he tripped and fell, and broke his toe. Based on his philosophical beliefs, he considered himself already old and at an appropriate age for death. So he committed suicide by strangling himself.
Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century A.D. In that later Roman period, Emperor Marcus Aurelius was counted among its adherents. The philosophy experienced a significant decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century A.D.
Authority
Stoicism is a hybrid belief system that combines elements of Naturalism and Pantheism. The primary authority source for Naturalism is, necessarily, human reason, as Naturalists do not acknowledge the validity of any transcendent reality. It also requires that there be some form of naturally verifiable evidence to validate beliefs. The primary authority source for Pantheism is human experience, as Pantheists don’t acknowledge the natural universe as the ground of ultimate reality. They do typically, though, acknowledge some form of impersonal transcendent existence.
Evidence for the Authority
The greatest problem regarding Stoicism’s authority source is the same as for all hybrid belief systems – internal contradiction. Every worldview contradicts the beliefs of every other worldview, so when one tries to combine beliefs from two or more worldview systems, the end result is always a cataclysmic contradiction.
In the case of Stoicism, Naturalism and Pantheism cannot both be true at the same time. Thus, this internal contradiction puts this philosophy in a position where it is impossible for it to represent the actual nature of reality.
Worldview Beliefs
God
As noted above, Stoicism is a hybrid belief system that combines elements of Naturalism and Pantheism. Based on Stoic philosophy, the Universe is a material substance that also has the ability to reason (a non-material quality). Adherents referred to this substance as God or Nature.
In describing its characteristics, Stoics divided Nature into two parts – passive and active. The passive substance is the natural matter that makes up the material universe. It is described as a sluggish substance that is ready to be used, but which remains dormant until some reasoning element sets it in motion. The active substance is referred to either as Fate or Universal Reason (Logos). This universal reason is considered to be an intelligent medium or a primordial fire that operates by predetermined laws to advance the movement of the cosmos. It was believed that the primordial fire would pass through the stage of air, then become water. Part of the result would produce earth, while part of it would once again become air, then return to primordial fire.
It is this intelligent medium (the active substance) that is able to act on passive matter. As it goes through time, the universe operates according to its own nature, being also influenced by the nature of the passive matter that it manipulates.
As such, the activity of the universe is based on Fate. Thus, the Universal Reason is not a conscious reasoning entity, but is an impersonal active force that animates the events in the universe in a predetermined and inevitable manner. Stoics recognized a connection between all living things. In a way, the universe was viewed as a giant living body with all of its parts being connected. These living parts were seen to relate to the material parts in the same way that the human soul relate to the body. The nature of the universe was believed to exist in a form that was able to accomplish what is right, and prevent what is wrong – similar to the idea of karma in Far Eastern Thought. While it was not well explained, Stoicism also allowed for the existence of free will that could also operate in Nature.
Based on the naturalistic aspect of this belief system, God (Nature) is not transcendent – as no transcendent reality is acknowledged to exist. It is simply the totality of the universe. Based on its pantheistic nature, however, the universe is considered infinite and cyclical – it has neither a beginning nor an ending. Similar to Hindu beliefs, the current Universe is seen to be a phase in the present cycle of eternal time that was preceded by an infinite number of previous Universes, and will be followed by an infinite number going forward.
Man
The Stoic view of man also reflects a combination of its naturalistic and pantheistic beliefs. Based on its pantheistic beliefs, Stoicism views individual souls to be perishable by nature, and can be changed and parceled out. As the “primordial fire” is understood to be the basis of all of reality, the souls of humans and animals are believed to be emanations from it. And since the primordial fire has a rational part to it, human beings, as reasoning creatures, are able to take advantage of it. As such, the goal of life for humanity is to live according to Reason, that is, according to Nature.
That said, the naturalistic element of the belief system is also a part of the equation, as Stoics were determinists. Nature was understood to be completely impersonal, and the operation of the universe completely mechanical. While Stoics did acknowledge the concept of chance happenings, in reality they recognized that so called chance happenings were really a reflection of human ignorance, and that ultimately what seems random is really an inevitable event.
Human emotions, too, were considered by Stoics to be material. While emotions seem like spiritual experiences, they were considered to be actually material because they have physical manifestations such as blushing or smiling. The same was believed about the operation of the mind and/or soul. It seems spiritual, but it also produces physical manifestations – such as bodily movements – so are seen to be expressions of the same physical operation.
Salvation
In Stoicism, the ultimate one can achieve in life is to acquire clear judgment, inner calm, and freedom from suffering. It is primarily a philosophy that puts a premium on virtuous behavior over words, and is based on the assumption that people’s personal ethics are guided by Stoic logic and its views about the natural world.
This belief system asserts that human beings are not able to control that which is external to themselves, so it is necessary to focus only on one’s own circumstances and responses to them. Stoicism also teaches that human beings are social creatures who are able to achieve happiness by accepting each moment as it presents itself, and by not allowing oneself to be controlled by a desire for pleasure or fear of pain. Rather, individuals are to use the mind to understand the nature of the world, do one’s proper actions in the world by working together with others, and treat people fairly and justly. It is in living out this kind of life that individuals are able to achieve the most from this life.
Other Beliefs
Ethics, Physics, and Logic
When Zeno established his philosophy, he centered it around three disciplines – ethics, physics and logic. That said, ethics was central, with logic and “physics supporting his ethical conclusions. His ethics consisted of a variation of Cynicism; his view of physics was influenced by Plato, who envisioned a universe consisting of an active (rational) and a passive (material) principle that involved a cosmic web of cause and effect; his logic included both formal logic and a naturalistic epistemology (theory of knowledge).
In its essence, Stoicism was a practical philosophy that had as its primary goal to help people live a life focused on practicing “the cardinal virtues” of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance (See Virtue below). The ethical practice was supported by the study of physics and logic. These all fit together within a naturalistic framework in which everything in existence, including God and the human soul, was believed to be part of the material universe.
Logic and physics were understood to be related to ethics because Stoicism is a thoroughly naturalistic philosophy. Even when the Stoics would discuss the topics of “God” or “soul,” they were referring to physical attributes that were identified with a rational principle that they considered to be embedded in the universe itself – making the universe some kind of rational entity and providing the “stuff” that makes human rationality possible.
Ethics
To the Stoics, ethics was not just another theoretical subject. Rather it was eminently practical. In fact, it was so central that it was regarded as the very reason for studying philosophy.
Stoic ethics was based upon the notion that people should live according to the laws of Nature. This included the rational-providential aspect of the cosmos, as well as human nature. All of this together allowed humans to act rationally to solve life’s problems. More specifically, the Stoics identified three areas of life that humans have to engage:
1. How to advance individual interests and goals (health, wealth, etc.);
2. How to identify with other people’s interests (family, friends, and fellow citizens);
3. How to practically navigate the issues that come up in daily life.
The four cardinal virtues, then, related directly to the proper way of engaging these areas of life. Temperance and courage are necessary to advance individual goals; justice relates to how one should deal with other people’s interests; and wisdom helped people know what would best allow them to deal effectively with the issues of daily life.
The ultimate goal of Stoic ethics was freedom from anguish or suffering. This part of the philosophy is where the pantheistic elements stand out. This is very similar to the ethical teachings of Buddhism. The elimination of suffering is accomplished by the pursuit of reason and objective, unemotional, clear judgment. It achieves this state of mind by developing a passive attitude toward external events (since nothing in the world is considered to be either good or evil), and calmness in the face of life’s highs and lows. By living out life with this kind of passive attitude, Stoics believed that a person could come to understand the “logos” (the natural universal reason in all things). To them, unhappiness and evil were the result of ignorance of an individual’s own universal reason. To overcome this, they believed it was necessary for people to examine their personal judgments and behavior, and figure out where they have deviated from the universal reason of Nature.
In relationship to others, the ethic promoted the equality of all people. Stoics accepted slaves as equals, denied the importance of external differences such as rank and wealth in social relationships, and considered themselves citizens of the world.
Physics
The Stoic understanding of physics included the natural sciences and metaphysics (abstract concepts such as void, time, soul, and God). In considering this, though, it must be remembered that the concept of science that the ancients held was different from modern science. For the Stoics, the reason for studying physics was not to get a better understanding of the physical world, but to underpin their ethical beliefs by giving people a more concrete knowledge of how to “live according to Nature.” Thus, metaphysics fit together with a study of the natural sciences, and both were considered objectively real. The ultimate goal was to live a life free of suffering and anguish.
Logic
As was mentioned before, Stoicism considered that the universe operated based on a pantheistic principle in which nature itself was believed to contain an element of reason. Logic is the component of the philosophy that explores the nature of this reason (logos). Stoics believed that in order to achieve a happy life, one must learn to think logically. It is the practice of logical thinking that makes an understanding of ethics possible.
As Stoicism was focused primarily on behavior, the purpose of logical thinking was not merely to engage the intellect, but was specifically intended to cultivate rational powers for the purpose of living a life free of suffering. Thus, practice in logical thinking was to be a daily effort focused on solving the problems of everyday life (See Spiritual Exercise below).
As such, Stoic logic was a means of self-discovery that could help people create an ethical life, and help them become confident that the life they lived was based on truth.
Spiritual Exercise
In Stoicism, behavior is primary. All of its philosophical beliefs are geared to help people live a life free of anguish and suffering. Since behavior is primary, the way one achieves better behavior is through constant practice and training. The kind of exercise involved in this training included such things as the practice of logic, Socratic and self dialog, the contemplation of death, developing one’s attention span to be able to remain in the present moment, and contemplation of everyday problems along with solutions to those problems.
Virtue
Virtue, in Stoicism, involved growing in one’s ethical and moral well-being. It was considered to be an expression of one’s will that was in agreement with Nature. This principle applied at the individual level as well as to interpersonal relationships. It was expressed outwardly in life as freedom from anger, envy, and jealousy, and it viewed all people as equals because everyone is equally a product of Nature.
Thus, “good” was understood to reside in the state of the soul itself, and was expressed as wisdom and self-control. This played out in the lives of individuals as the effort to be free from anguish and suffering. People could gain this freedom by passively reacting to external events. The Stoic conception of passivity, however, was not simply to do nothing, but was the peace of mind that came with an individual’s active attempt to apply correct judgment to a situation.
For Stoics, virtue was the only good and it applied to all of life. Thus, external things such as health, wealth, and pleasure were not seen as good or bad in themselves, rather, they were simply things for virtue to act upon. The Stoics recognized four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance.
Social Philosophy
The pantheistic element of Stoic philosophy manifested itself strongly in the way it viewed mankind in general. It saw all people as manifestations of the one universal spirit (primordial fire), thus everyone in every place was equally valuable as a human being. Thus, Stoics believed that everyone should live in brotherly love. They considered all people to be “a citizen of the world.” As such, all external differences such as ethnicity, wealth, gender, and the like, are completely unimportant in social relationships.
© 2019 Freddy Davis